Labelling theory Essays

Labelling theory Essays Labelling theory Essay Labelling theory Essay Outline labelling theory and see its utility in understanding young person offense and anti-social behavior in Britain today. Labeling theory is the act of naming, the deployment of linguistic communication to confabulate and repair the significances of behavior and symbolic internationalism and phenomenology.Tannenbaum, ( 1938 ) defines labelling as the procedure of doing the condemnable by using procedures of tagging, specifying, placing, segregating, depicting, underscoring, doing witting and self witting. Labeling theory claims that aberrance and conformance consequences non so much from what people do but from how others respond to those actions, it highlights societal responses to offense and aberrance Macionis and Plummer, ( 2005 ) .Deviant behavior is hence socially constructed. This essay will depict in full the labelling theory and remark on the importance of the theory to the aberrant behavior of the young person and the anti-social behavior of the young person in Britain today. The labelling theory becomes dominant in the early 1960s and the late seventiess when it was used as a sociological theory of offense influential in disputing Orthodox positiveness criminology. The cardinal people to this theory were Becker and Lement.The foundations of this position of aberrance are said to hold been foremost established by Lement, ( 1951 ) and were later developed by Becker, ( 1963 ) .As a affair of fact the labelling theory has later become a dominant paradigm in the account of devience.The symbolic interaction position was highly active in the early foundations of the labelling theory. The labelling theory is constituted by the premise that aberrant behavior is to be seen non merely as the misdemeanor of a norm but as any behavior which is successfully defined or labelled as pervert. Deviance is non the act itself but the response others give to that act which means aberrance is in the eyes of the perceiver. Actually the labelling theory was built on Becker, ( 19 63:9 ) statement that Social groups create aberrance by doing the regulations whose misdemeanor constitute aberrance, and by using those regulations to peculiar people and labelling them as foreigners aberrance is non a quality of the act of a individual commits, but instead a effects of the application by others of regulations and countenances to an offender The pervert is one to whom that label has successfully been applied. Deviant behavior is behaviour that people so label. The manner out is a refusal to dramatise the immorality. The labelling theory connects to great sociological thoughts of Dukheim the symbolic interactionism and the struggle theory. The theory besides draws from the thought of Thomas ( 1928 ) that when people define state of affairss as existent they become existent in their effects. Lement, ( 1951-1972 ) distinguishes aberrance into primary and secondary aberrance in which he described primary aberrance as those small reactions from others which have small consequence on a individual s ego construct and secondary aberrance as when people push a aberrant individual out of their societal circles which leads the individual to be embittered and seek the company of the people who condone his behaviour.Lement farther argued that instead than seeing a offense as taking to command it may be more fruitful to see the procedure as one in which control bureaus structured and even generated offense. Secondary aberrance leads to what Goffman ( 1963 ) pervert calling. This will later leads to stigma which is a powerful negative societal label that radically changes a individual s ego construct and societal individuality. A condemnable prosecution is one manner that an person is labelled in a negative instead than in a positive manner. Stigmatizing people frequently leads to re trospective labelling which is the reading of person s past consistent with the present aberrance Seheff ; ( 1984 ) .Retrospective labelling distorts a individual s life in a damaging manner guided by stigma than any effort to be just. No societal category stands apart from others as being either condemnable or free from criminalism. However harmonizing to assorted sociologists people with less interest in society and their ain hereafter typically exhibit less opposition to some sorts of devience.Labelling theory asks what happens to felons after they have been labelled and suggests that offense may be highlighted by condemnable countenances therefore directing one to prison may assist to outlaw an single further. Stigmatizing immature wrongdoers may really take them into a condemnable calling. Howard S.Becker, ( 1963 ) one of the earlier interaction theoreticians claimed that societal groups create aberrance by doing the regulations whose misdemeanor constitute aberrance and by using those regulations to peculiar people and labelling them as foreigners. Furthermore the labelling theoretical attack to deviance dressed ores on the societal reaction to deviance committed by persons every bit good as the interaction processes taking up to the labelling. The theory therefore suggests that criminology has been given excessively much attending to felons as types of people and deficient attending to the aggregation of societal control responses. That hence means the jurisprudence, the constabulary, the media and the public publications helps to give offense its form. This is supported by the struggle theory which demonstrates how aberrance reflects inequalities and power.This attack holds that the causes of offense may be linked to inequalities of category, race and gender and that who or what is labelled as aberrant depends on the comparative power of classs of people.Cicourel s survey on Juvenile justness in California, ( 1972 ) pointed out that constabulary stereotypes result in black, white category young person being labelled felon. The struggle theory links aberrance to power in the signifier of the norms and the Torahs of most societies which bolster the involvements of the rich and powerful. The labelling theory links deviance non to action but to the reaction of others.The construct of stigma, secondary aberrance and aberrant calling demonstrates how people can integrate the label of aberrance into a permanent self-concept. Political leaders recognises that labelling was a political act for it made them aware on which regulations to implement, what behavior is to see as pervert and which people labelled as foreigners may necessitate political aid Becker, ( 1963-7 ) .Political leaders went on to bring forth a series of empirical surveies refering the beginnings of deviancy definitions through political actions in countries such as drugs statute law, moderation statute law, delinquency definitions, homosexualism, harlotry and erotica. Becker, ( 1963 ) examines the possible effects upon an person after being publically labelled as pervert. A label is non impersonal ; it contains an rating of the individual to whom it is applied. It will go a maestro label in the sense that it colours all the other positions possessed by an person. If one is labelled as a pedophile, condemnable or homosexual it is hard to reject such labels for those labels mostly overrides their original position as parents, worker, neighbour and friend. Others view that individual and respond to him or her in footings of the label and be given to presume that person has the negative features usually associated with such labels. Since an person s ego construct is mostly derived from the responses of others they will be given to see themselves in footings of that label. This may bring forth a ego carry throughing prognostication whereby the aberrant designation becomes the commanding 1. This links to the interactionist attack which emphasizes the importance of the significances the assorted histrions bring to and develops within the interaction state of affairs. However the labelling theory has its failings which includes Liazos, ( 1972 ) who noted that although the labelling theoreticians aims to humanize the aberrant person and show that he or she is no different than other persons except possibly in footings of chance. It nevertheless by the really accent on the pervert and his individuality jobs and subculture the opposite consequence may hold been achieved. He farther suggested that while sing the more usual mundane types of aberrance such as homosexualism, harlotry and juvenile delinquency the labelling theoreticians have wholly ignored a more unsafe and malevolent types of aberrance which he termed covert institutional force. He pointed out that this type of force leads to such things as poorness and development for illustration the war in Vietnam, unfair revenue enhancement Torahs, racism and sexism. It is questionable whether labelling theoreticians should even try to discourse signifiers of aberrance such as this in the same manner as more platitude single offenses or whether the two should be kept wholly separate being so different in capable affair. Akers, ( 1994 ) besides criticized the labelling theory by indicating out that it fails to explicate why people break the jurisprudence while the bulk conform explicating that people go about minding their ain concern and so wham-bad society comes along and stops them with a stigmatised label. The theory fails to explicate why the moral enterprisers react in the mode described but instead incriminations society and portrays felons as inexperienced person victims which is non ever the instance. To counter for the negative effects of punitory steps to youth offense and anti-social behavior the British authorities introduced the ASBO and ABC which means anti societal behavior orders and acceptable behaviors respectively.ASBO and ABC are recent developments in Britain which were designed to set a halt to anti-social behavior by the person on whom they are imposed.ASBO is a statutory creative activity and it carries legal force where as an ABC is an informal process though non without legal significance. Both types of intercessions are aimed at halting the job behavior instead than penalizing the wrongdoer which may take an single into a aberrant calling. The ABC proved most effectual as a agency of promoting immature grownups, kids and parents to take duty for unacceptable behavior. These steps are being used to better the quality of life for local people by undertaking behaviors such as torment, graffito, condemnable harm and verbal maltreatment without outlawing the wrongdoer. The offense and upset act ( 1998 ) contains the cardinal elements of labor s new young person justness system which saw the constitution of the young person justness and the restructuring of the non tutelary punishments available to the young person tribunal. The authorities believed that forestalling piquing promotes the public assistance of the single immature wrongdoer and protects the populace. The young person justness board oversees the young person piquing squads which has a figure of functions including measuring the hazard and protective factors in a immature individual s life that relate to their piquing behavior to enable effectual intercessions to be implemented, supplying support to immature people who have been released from the detention into the community and early intercession and preventive work both in criminalism and anti-social behavior. To further cut down the effects of labelling the British authorities is undertaking anti-social behavior and its causes by undertaking household jobs, hapless instruction attainment, unemployment, intoxicant and drug abuse. The most successful intercessions to be implemented where noted to be those that engage the person in altering their ain behavior. This is being done guaranting that an single understands the impact of their behavior to the community whilst offering the necessary support to conform. Rather than labelling and outlawing an single the British authorities came up with effectual advice, councelling and support that enable people who behave anti- Socially to alter their behavior. Perpetrators immature and grownups have issues in their lives that require the aid and support of professional, statutory or voluntary administrations. Issues like money direction and debt, communicating troubles with the household, immature people fighting within the educational or employment because of piquing behavior and victims of domestic force can all profit from available services in Britain today. This essay hence concludes that labelling theory is tremendously influential in directing attending towards the relation and slightly arbitrary nature of dominant definitions of offense and criminalism in Britain. It besides critizes the condemnable justness and the bureaus of societal control for it reflects on the effects of our societal reaction and advocators for alterations in public policy on juvenile justness, renewing justness, de-institutionalisation and communitarian attacks. The powerful penetrations of the labelling theory made the British governments to rethink once more on the tough on offense stance hence the debut of new renewing steps which does non label or outlaw immature wrongdoers. The labelling theory is hence rather utile in understanding that the rise in the yob civilization, gang civilization and hoody civilization in Britain was a consequence of outlawing immature wrongdoers instead than turn toing issues taking the immature into offense and anti-social beha vior. Wordss 2010 Mentions Berker and Howard, S ( 1963 ) Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of aberrance, New York: free imperativeness Goffman, E ( 1963 ) Stigma: Notes on the direction of spoilt individuality, Prentice-hall Hall, S ( 1978 ) Patroling the crisis, The Macmillan imperativeness LTD Haralambos, M and Holborn ( 1991 ) Sociology subjects and positions, Collins instruction. Macionis, J and Plummer, K ( 2005 ) Sociology a planetary debut, Pearson instruction limited. Taylor et Al, ( 1973 ) the new criminology for a societal theory of devience, Routledge 5

Biography of Johannes Kepler, Pioneering Astronomer

Biography of Johannes Kepler, Pioneering Astronomer Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571–November 15, 1630) was a pioneering German astronomer, inventor, astrologer, and mathematician who is best known for the three laws of planetary motion now named for him. In addition, his experiments in the field of optics were instrumental in revolutionizing eyeglass and other lens-related technologies. Thanks to his innovative discoveries combined with his original and accurate methodology for recording and analyzing his own data as well as that of his contemporaries, Kepler is considered one of the most significant contributing minds of the 17th-century scientific revolution. Johannes Kepler Known For: Kepler was an inventor, astronomer, and mathematician who served as a central figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution.Born: December 27, 1571 in Weil, Swabia, Germany  Parents: Heinrich and Katharina Guldenmann KeplerDied: November 15, 1630 in Regensburg, Bavaria, GermanyEducation: Tà ¼binger Stift, Eberhard Karls University of Tà ¼bingenPublished Works:  Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos), Astronomiae Pars Optica  (The Optical Part of Astronomy), Astronomia Nova  (New Astronomy), Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo  (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae  (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy), Harmonices Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds)Spouse(s): Barbara Mà ¼eller, Susan ReuttingerChildren: 11Notable Quote: â€Å"I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a single intelligent man to the thoughtless approval of the masses.† Early Life, Education, and Influences Johannes Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, in Weil der Stadt, Wà ¼rttemburg, in the Holy Roman Empire. His family, once prominent, was relatively poor by the time he was born. Keplers paternal grandfather Sebald Kepler, a respected craftsman, had served as mayor of the city. His maternal grandfather, innkeeper Melchior Guldenmann, was mayor of the nearby village Eltingen. Keplers mother Katharina was an herbalist who helped run the family hostelry. His father Heinrich served as a mercenary soldier. Keplers gift for mathematics and interest in the stars became evident at an early age. He was a sickly child, and while he survived a bout of smallpox, he was left with weak vision and damage to his hands. His poor eyesight did not hinder his studies, however. In 1576, Kepler began attending the Latin school in Leonberg. He witnessed both the passing of The Great Comet of 1577 and a lunar eclipse in the same year, which were thought to have been inspirational in his later studies. In 1584, he enrolled at the Protestant seminary at Adelberg, with the goal of becoming a minister. In 1589, after obtaining a scholarship, he matriculated to the Protestant University of Tà ¼bingen. In addition to his theological studies, Kepler read widely. While at university, he learned of the astronomer Copernicus and became a devotee of his system. Career, Religion, and Marriage After graduation, Kepler obtained a position teaching mathematics in Graz, Austria, at the Protestant seminary. He was also appointed district mathematician and calendar maker. It was in Graz that he penned his defense of the Copernican system Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1597. Kepler married a wealthy 23-year-old twice-widowed heiress named Barbara Mà ¼eller that same year. Kepler and his wife began their family but their first two children died in infancy. As a Lutheran, Kepler followed the Augsburg Confession. However, he did not accept the presence of Jesus Christ in the sacrament of Holy Communion and refused to sign the Formula of Accord. As a result, Kepler was exiled from the Lutheran Church (his subsequent refusal to convert to Catholicism left him at odds with both sides when the Thirty Years War broke out in 1618) and was obliged to leave Graz. In 1600, Kepler moved to Prague, where he had been hired by Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe- who held the title of Imperial Mathematician to Emperor Rudolph II. Brahe tasked Kepler with analyzing planetary observations and writing arguments to refute Brahes rivals. Analysis of Brahes data showed that the orbit of Mars was an ellipse rather than the perfect circle that was always held to be ideal. When Brahe died in 1601, Kepler took over Brahes title and position. In 1602, Keplers daughter Susanna was born, followed by sons Friedrich in 1604 and Ludwig in 1607. In 1609, Kepler published Astronomia Nova, which contained the two laws of planetary motion that now bear his name. The book also detailed the scientific methodology and thought processes hed used to arrive at his conclusions. It is the first published account wherein a scientist documents how he has coped with the multitude of imperfect data to forge a theory of surpassing accuracy, he wrote. Mid-Career, Remarriage, and War When Emperor Rudolph abdicated to his brother Matthias in 1611, Keplers position became increasingly precarious due to his religious and political beliefs. Keplers wife Barbara came down with Hungarian spotted fever that same year. Both Barbara and Keplers son Friedrich (whod contracted smallpox) succumbed to their illnesses in 1612. After their deaths, Kepler accepted a position as district mathematician for the city of Linz (a post he retained until 1626) and was remarried in 1613 to Susan Reuttinger. His second marriage was reported to be happier than his first, although three of the couples six children died in childhood. At the opening of the Thirty Years War in 1618, Kepler’s tenure in Linz was further imperiled. As a court official, he was exempt from the decree banishing Protestants from the district but he did not escape persecution. In 1619, Kepler published Harmonices Mundi in which he laid out his third law. In 1620, Keplers mother was accused of witchcraft and put on trial. Kepler was obliged to return to Wà ¼rttemburg to defend her against the charges. The following year saw the publication of his seven-volume Epitome Astronomiae in 1621, an influential work that discussed heliocentric astronomy in a systematic way. During this time, he also completed the Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) begun by Brahe, adding his own innovations that included calculations arrived at by the use of logarithms. Unfortunately, when a peasant rebellion erupted in Linz, a fire destroyed much of the original printed edition. Later Years and Death As the war dragged on, Keplers house was requisitioned as a garrison for soldiers. He and his family departed Linz in 1626. By the time the  Tabulae Rudolphinae  was eventually published in Ulm in 1627, Kepler was unemployed and was owed a great deal of unpaid salary from his years as Imperial Mathematician. After efforts to obtain numerous court appointments failed, Kepler returned to Prague in an attempt to recoup some of his financial losses from the royal treasury. Kepler died in Regensburg, Bavaria, in 1630. His gravesite was lost when the churchyard in which he was buried was destroyed at some time during the Thirty Years War. Legacy More than an astronomer, Johannes Keplers legacy spans a number of fields and encompasses an impressive number of scientific firsts. Keplar both discovered the universal laws of planetary motion and explained them correctly. He was the first to correctly explain how the moon creates the tide (which Galileo disputed) and the first to suggest that the Sun rotates around its axis. In addition, he calculated the now commonly accepted birth year for Jesus Christ and coined the word satellite. Keplers book Astronomia Pars Optica is the foundation of the science of modern optics. Not only was he the first to define vision as a process of refraction within the eye, as well as explain the process depth perception, he was also first to explain the principles of the  telescope and describe the properties of total internal reflection. His revolutionary designs for eyeglasses- for both nearsightedness and farsightedness- literally changed the way in which people with vision impairments see the world. Sources â€Å"Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times. NASA.Casper, Max.  Kepler. Collier Books, 1959. Reprint, Dover Publications, 1993.Voelkel, James R.  Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy. Oxford University Press, 1999.Kepler, Johannes, and William Halsted Donahue.  Johannes Kepler: New Astronomy. Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Work experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Work experience - Essay Example When working in this division, I had contact with multiple shipment vendors and worked to develop quality relationships with drivers and their related dispatchers. Invoicing was often a job requirement in the warehousing division. Sales and marketing dealt with identifying target markets for delivery of business-to-business promotional literature. In this business area, job responsibilities included heavy focus on relationship marketing to ensure that vendors within the supply chain remained responsive to our business’ needs. Monitoring strategic alliances for improving costs was often a business responsibility. In similar regard, customer service functions in the steel company included fielding calls from multiple clients and demanded proficiency in materials resource planning software. At the leadership level, accounting job responsibilities included calculating current and future net profit by reviewing balance sheets and income statements and recording revenue receipts. I earned considerable experience in the rules governing sales tax and income tax at the business level. Accounting gave me the ability to assess the financial health of a business through financial

An analytical report on a organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

An analytical report on a organisation - Essay Example Sainsbury is the second biggest supermarket chain in the UK and commands a market share of about seventeen percent of the supermarket sector (Martin and Hetrick, 2006, p. 222). John James Sainsbury established it in 1869 as a shop in London and it grew to become the biggest retailer of groceries in 1922 while pioneering the self-service retail approach in the UK and having its heydays in the eighties (McLoughlin and Aaker, 2010, p. 129). However, Tesco overtook the company in 1995 as the market leader, with Asda becoming the second biggest in 2003, therefore relegating Sainsbury to third. J Sainsbury PLC, which is a holding company, is divided into three divisions that include supermarkets, convenience stores and the Sainsbury Bank. The headquarters of the holding company are located in the Store Support Centre of the company in Holborn Circus and the group is also interested in the property. The biggest overall shareholder of the company is Qatar’s sovereign wealth fund, hold ing almost twenty-six percent of the company, which is also listed in the London Stock Exchange. Sainsbury operates a variety of store formats that are intended to meet particular requirements of the customers and locations (Schnedlitz, 2010, p. 154). It also has online operations were groceries as well as non-food sales continue to increase, especially after the introduction of the Click and Collect service that enables customers to freely pick the non-food products they order online at stores that are convenient to them and this has demonstrated to be extremely popular with most of the customers. The company has a considerable portfolio that includes buildings and long leasehold properties as well as property that exists in joint venture engagements. The Sainsbury Bank deals with a variety of quality products such savings and loans, insurances and credit cards. Additionally, it provides the customer with quality products at good prices while regularly rewarding

Treason, Terrorism and Wartime Criminal Justice Essay Example for Free

Treason, Terrorism and Wartime Criminal Justice Essay In the history of the United States the acts of treason, terrorism and criminal justice during times of war have taken on various forms. From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the current war on terror, the Constitution and its amendments have been challenged to ensure national security. To understand this we must first look at what treason and terrorism are and the effects they have had in the reduction of civil liberties during times of war. Treason   Treason is defined as: â€Å"The betrayal of ones own country by waging war against it or by consciously or purposely acting to aid its enemies. †Ã‚   (Wehl, 1950) Under Article III, Section 3, of the Constitution, any person who levies war against the United States or adheres to its enemies by giving them â€Å"aid and comfort† has committed treason within the meaning of the Constitution. The term aid and comfort refers to any act that manifests a betrayal of allegiance to the United States, such as furnishing enemies with arms, troops, transportation, shelter, or classified information. If a subversive act has any tendency to weaken the power of the United States to attack or resist its enemies, aid and comfort has been given. The Treason Clause applies only to disloyal acts committed during times of war. Acts of disloyalty during peacetime are not considered treasonous under the Constitution. Nor do acts of Espionage committed on behalf of an ally constitute treason. For example, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of espionage, in 1951, for helping the Soviet Union steal atomic secrets from the United States during World War II. The Rosenbergs were not tried for treason because the United States and the Soviet Union were allies during World War II. â€Å"Under Article III a person can levy war against the United States without the use of arms, weapons, or military equipment. Persons who play only a peripheral role in a conspiracy to levy war are still considered traitors under the Constitution if an armed rebellion against the United States results. After the U.S. Civil War, for example, all Confederate soldiers were vulnerable to charges of treason, regardless of their role in the secession or insurrection of the Southern states. No treason charges were filed against these soldiers, however, because President Andrew Johnson issued a universal amnesty.† (Smith, 1956) The crime of treason requires a traitorous intent. If a person unwittingly or unintentionally gives aid and comfort to an enemy of the United States during wartime, treason has not occurred. Similarly, a person who pursues a course of action that is intended to benefit the United States but mistakenly helps an enemy is not guilty of treason. Inadvertent disloyalty is never punishable as treason, no matter how much damage the United States suffers. As in any other criminal trial in the United States, a defendant charged with treason is presumed innocent until proved guilty â€Å"beyond a reasonable doubt†. Treason may be proved by a voluntary confession in open court or by evidence that the defendant committed an â€Å"overt act† of treason. Each overt act must be witnessed by at least two people, or a conviction for treason will not stand. By requiring this type of direct evidence, the Constitution minimizes the danger of convicting an innocent person and forestalls the possibility of partisan witch-hunts waged by a single adversary. Unexpressed seditious thoughts do not constitute treason, even if those thoughts contemplate a bloody revolution or coup. Nor does the public expression of subversive opinions, including vehement criticism of the government and its policies, constitute treason. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees the right of all Americans to advocate the violent overthrow of their government unless such advocacy is directed toward inciting imminent lawless action and is likely to produce it (Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 89 S. Ct. 1827, 23 L. Ed. 2d 430 [1969]). On the other hand, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the distribution of leaflets protesting the draft during World War I was not constitutionally protected speech (schenck v. united states, 249 U.S. 47, 39 S. Ct. 247, 63 L. Ed. 470 [1919]). Because treason involves the betrayal of allegiance to the United States, a person need not be a U.S. citizen to commit treason under the Constitution. Persons who owe temporary allegiance to the United States can commit treason. Aliens who reside in the United States, for example, can commit traitorous acts during the period of their domicile. A subversive act does not need to occur on U.S. soil to be punishable as treason. For example, Mildred Gillars, a U.S. citizen who became known as Axis Sally, was convicted of treason for broadcasting demoralizing propaganda to Allied forces in Europe from a Nazi radio station in Germany during World War II. â€Å"Treason is punishable by death. If a death sentence is not imposed, defendants face a minimum penalty of five years in prison and a $10,000 fine (18 U.S.C.A.  § 2381). A person who is convicted of treason may not hold federal office at any time thereafter.† (Chapin, 1964) Terrorism Terrorism is defined as: â€Å"The unlawful use or threat of violence, especially against the state or the public as a politically motivated means of attack or coercion.† (Davenport, 2009) When we speak about terrorism, we initially mean transnational terrorism, which takes the form of the violent conflict between two or more different states. If we take terrorism as violation of certain social norms, the norms of what state should we take into account? On the one hand, terrorism directly violates the social norms of the society against which it is directed. On the other hand, terrorism becomes an acute response to the threats, under which the social norms of the terrorist state may appear. With the growing threats of terrorist attacks, numerous attempts have been made to explain the causation and roots of terrorism. There are several political, economic, and psychosocial theories which explain what terrorism is. The notion of terrorism has been discussed from the viewpoint of different disciplines and from various theoretical perspectives. Terrorism has been depicted more in political and social, rather than criminological terms. There have not been too many attempts to link terrorism to crime. This is why we still lack profound understanding of terrorism’s causation. Research has not produced any new theories which would explain terrorism. As a result, we can only utilize the existing well known crime theories to explain the notions and the roots of terrorism. The traditional picture of modern terrorism implies that terrorism has mainly Islamic roots. The extreme conservatism of the Islamic world and its reluctance to become a part of the worlds technological revolution may also serve the cause of terrorism. Rapid technological change changes the way institutions relate to one another. Change produces new norms, and new values. Those socialized to the old norms take time to adapt, and this ‘time lag’ results in the normative confusion between the old and the new societal values. (Laufer Adler, 1998) When such changes expand beyond the borders of one state and involve whole nations and continents, there will always be those who would refuse to conform to the new norms. The transition from the older to the newer norms actually causes significant stress onto the societal conscience. Terrorism is the ultimate act of opposition against the imposed implementation of the new norms. As states use terrorism to prove their social or political position, they defend their social norms and violate the norms of other states. Trying to determine the roots of terrorism, we must look at the so-called irrationality of terrorism†. This hypothesis stems from the theory of rational choice. Although it is difficult to deny that terrorism is a rational choice activity, in many instances rational choice remains irrelevant to explaining terrorism as a crime. This is further proof of the fact that we need one unified objective theory which would draw the terrorism cause in logical terms. On the one hand, terrorism as a crime is irrational in responsiveness to incentives. (Caplan, 2005) This factor determines the willingness of a person to commit a crime: the better the incentives are, the more inclined towards a crime a person will be. Moreover, rational choice suggests weighing all possible alternatives in choosing the tactics of specific crime. â€Å"The same holds for suicidal terrorism. Groups do not adopt suicide tactics for their own sake. They adopt them because they work†. On the other hand, we cannot explain terrorism within the theoretical framework of narrow self-interests which is integrally linked to traditional rational choice theory of crime. (Wilson, 2005) â€Å"Suicidal terrorism is far stronger counter-example to narrow self-interest. From a non-evolutionary viewpoint, it is impossible to reconcile the two. No matter how much you receive for your services, it does you no good if you are not alive to consume anything. Furthermore, if you get paid first and die later, there is an end-game problem. A selfish agent would take the money, then do everything in his power to back out† (Caplan, 2005). â€Å"Terrorism is first and foremost a criminal matter†. However, criminologists still fail to produce a relevant and explicit theory about terrorism as a crime. We possess sufficient knowledge about terrorism as a political, economic, or social phenomenon, but for some reason we keep forgetting that terrorism is a crime, and we primarily perceive as a crime with its peculiar characteristics. We will never be able to develop sound anti-terrorism preventive measures, if we lack understanding of terrorism from the criminological perspective. (Hamm, 2007) We must be aware of what causes terrorist crimes, what justifies them, and how we can deal with terrorist violence. Our primary task is to shift the emphasis from political to criminological perspective of terrorism. We must ultimately recognize that prevalence and incidence of terrorism requires criminological re-consideration. The new crime theory of terrorism must be multifaceted, and should link criminology of terrorism to its political dynamics and environmental contingencies. (Laufer Adler, 1998) Wartime Criminal Justice Historically, Americans risk losing civil liberties in wartime. Two risks to civil liberties arise out of war situations, first that under the guise of emergency, powers concentrated into the hands of government agents are misused, and second, that when the emergency ends, liberties formerly enjoyed are permanently eroded. The Constitution divides war powers between the Congress and the President.   This division was intended by the framers to ensure that wars would not be entered into easily: it takes two keys, not one, to start the engine of war. The Constitutions division of powers leaves the President with some exclusive powers as Commander-in-Chief (such as decisions on the field of battle), Congress with certain other exclusive powers (such as the ability to declare war and appropriate dollars to support the war effort), and a sort of twilight zone of concurrent powers.   In the zone of concurrent powers, the Congress might effectively limit presidential power, but in the absence of express congressional limitations the President is free to act.   Although on paper it might appear that the powers of Congress with respect to war are more dominant, the reality is that Presidential power has been more importantin part due to the modern need for quick responses to foreign threats and in part due to the many-headed nature of Congress. A brief survey of American history indicates that virtually every war has been accompanied not only by necessary restrictions on individual freedoms, but on overreactions, often hysterical, that has unnecessarily curtailed the liberty of Americans. The undeclared naval war by Britain and France on the fledgling United States in the 1790s led President Adams’ Federalist controlled Congress to pass the â€Å"Alien and Sedition Laws†Ã¢â‚¬â€clear violations of the First Amendment. Prosecutions under the law, soon after repealed, were politically motivated. President Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus in thousands of cases during the Civil War. Although historians have granted the necessity and even the restraint of these acts, the Supreme Court repudiated this unilateral presidential power after the War ended. A World War I sedition law made criticism of the military draft a crime. Sedition prosecutions stifled free speech. In reaction, the ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union) was formed and in a series of landmark cases, the Supreme Court strengthened First Amendment freedoms, limiting the ability of government to stifle unpopular political expression. Fear of Bolsheviks in post-World War I turmoil, a deadly Wall Street bombing, and assassination threats in 1919 led to the â€Å"Palmer Raids†Ã¢â‚¬â€round-ups of thousands of people around the country, mostly leftist or pro-labor, organized by J. Edgar Hoover under the authority of Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer. More than a hundred-thousand Japanese-Americans were interned for the duration of World War II in a tragic overreaction to the Pearl Harbor attack, a move upheld by the Supreme Court. President Roosevelt authorized national security wiretapping and eavesdropping on his authority, a necessary action that led to later abuses that were curbed by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). During the Korean War, President Truman nationalized the steel industry in order to break a strike that threatened war production. The Supreme Court swiftly ruled that this was an unconstitutional extension of the president’s war powers. The longest and most severe threat to civil liberty was the rise of the â€Å"national security state† for at least half of the twentieth century in an effort to thwart the real threats of fascism, Nazism, and expansionist Soviet communism under Stalin. Fascism and the Axis Powers were defeated both by military victories in World War II and by post-war assistance that painstakingly built constructed democratic regimes in Japan, Germany and Italy. â€Å"The long struggle to contain communist global expansion, warped American politics and justice in the 1950s, with political trials, loyalty oaths, Sen. Joseph McCarthy witch hunts (which missed real Soviet spies), artists’ blacklisting, local police department ‘red squad’ snooping, CIA spying on Americans within the country, FBI wiretapping Martin Luther King, Jr. And civil rights leaders, and a climate of political fear that equated a belief in racial equality or other liberal opinions with communism by the FBI.† (Stone, 2005) The anti-Vietnam War protests of the 1960s produced repressive political crimes and political trials, which carried over into the wiretapping abuses of the Nixon Administration resulting in the president’s resignation under threat of impeachment. After these emergency periods passed, repressive laws were typically repealed or declared unconstitutional, and excessive law enforcement behavior was curbed. The nations commitment to free speech rebounded, usually rather quickly, and sometimes more robustly than before. A Congressional report declared that the Sedition Act of 1798 had been passed under a mistaken exercise of power and was null and void. The Sedition Act of 1918, which was repealed two years later, helped give birth to the modern civil liberties movement. And in 1976, President Ford formally prohibited the C.I.A. from using electronic or physical surveillance to collect information on domestic activities of Americans, and the new F.B.I. director, Clarence Kelly, publicly apologized for F.B.I. abuses under J. Edgar Hoover. (Sofaer Williams, 2002) In summary, we see how acts of treason against the United States have taken on different forms. If an act can weaken the power of the United States to attack or resist its enemies, aid and comfort has been given, and thus treason has been committed. Terrorism has evolved both in complexity and with technology. It can take on domestic and international forms and is the ultimate act of defiance against a society. Politics and religion feed the terrorists’ fervor and with the advancements in explosives, even suicide bombers pose a significant threat. As terrorism and treason have evolved, so too have the responses to those acts. From the Sedition Act to the Patriot Act, these responses have been controversial but necessary to ensure the safety of our nation. Many think it not only inevitable but entirely proper that liberty give way to security in times of national crisis. The Founders warned us about the risk, and equipped us with a Constitution designed to deal with it. References Caplan, B. (2005). Terrorism: the relevance of the rational choice model. Criminology 43 (4), pp. 1039-1060. Chapin, B. (1964).   The American Law of Treason: Revolutionary and Early National  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Origins. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Davenport, A. (2009). Basic Criminal Law: The Constitution, Procedure, and Crimes. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Press. Hamm, M. (2007). Terrorism as a crime: from Oklahoma City to Al-Qaeda and beyond. New York: NYU Press. Laufer, W. Adler, F. (1998). Advances in criminological theory. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers. Smith, J. (1956). Freedoms Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Sofaer, A. Williams, P. (2002). Doing Justice During Wartime. Retrieved May 10, 2009, from Stanford University, Hoover Institution Web site: http://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3461221.html Stone, G. (2005). Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism. New York: Norton, W. W. Company, Inc. Weyl, N. (1950). Treason: The Story of Disloyalty and Betrayal in American History. Washington D.C.: Public Affairs Press. Wilson, R. (2005). Human rights in the ‘War on Terror’. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chomsky and Skinner and Theories Of Language Development Essay

Chomsky and Skinner and Theories Of Language Development Many psychologists have studied and researched into how we acquire language. Some have concluded that the ability to learn language is a genetically inherited skill. Others believe that language is learned following birth and is due to environmental factors. This is part of the nature vs. nurture debate. One of the main psychologists who supported the nurture side was B.F Skinner. Skinner is an empiricist. He put forward the idea that children learn language because of the influence of the environment. Skinner believed that parents would provide more attention and pleasurable reactions when the infant made correct sounds or utterances. This way the child would gradually learn to speak and use language. The child would respond to the smiles and approval of the parents. Skinner explained this as operant conditioning; the reinforcement of a random response by a reward. By trial and error the child would learn to communicate. The child would repeat verbal behaviour that was rewarded and drop sounds or speech that did not work in terms of getting a pleasurable response. This is selective reinforcement. Pavlov and his dogs were and excellent example of operant conditioning. Pavlov rang a bell when it was time for the dogs to eat; eventually the dogs associated the bell with food. Each time the bell rang the dogs salivated. On the other hand, N.Chomsky who was a nativist argued that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This meant that humans have a built in mechanism to help them recognise and speak language. Chomsky believed that children simply neede... ...rmal language acquisition early in life. q Sachs reported the case of Jim, whose parents deaf but who was surrounded by spoken language from the television and radio in the hope that he would learn normal language. Jim showed no signs of learning language until a speech therapist took up his case at the age of three. Without the human interaction with the speech therapist there was no sign that Jim would have learned to speak. He needed the interaction before his language ability could develop. q If language development was innate, surely it would develop soon after we are able to control our voices, which is soon after one year of age. It does not explain why language takes a few years to develop. q Chomsky's theory also doesn't explain why there are such large variations in the rate children learn language. Chomsky and Skinner and Theories Of Language Development Essay Chomsky and Skinner and Theories Of Language Development Many psychologists have studied and researched into how we acquire language. Some have concluded that the ability to learn language is a genetically inherited skill. Others believe that language is learned following birth and is due to environmental factors. This is part of the nature vs. nurture debate. One of the main psychologists who supported the nurture side was B.F Skinner. Skinner is an empiricist. He put forward the idea that children learn language because of the influence of the environment. Skinner believed that parents would provide more attention and pleasurable reactions when the infant made correct sounds or utterances. This way the child would gradually learn to speak and use language. The child would respond to the smiles and approval of the parents. Skinner explained this as operant conditioning; the reinforcement of a random response by a reward. By trial and error the child would learn to communicate. The child would repeat verbal behaviour that was rewarded and drop sounds or speech that did not work in terms of getting a pleasurable response. This is selective reinforcement. Pavlov and his dogs were and excellent example of operant conditioning. Pavlov rang a bell when it was time for the dogs to eat; eventually the dogs associated the bell with food. Each time the bell rang the dogs salivated. On the other hand, N.Chomsky who was a nativist argued that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This meant that humans have a built in mechanism to help them recognise and speak language. Chomsky believed that children simply neede... ...rmal language acquisition early in life. q Sachs reported the case of Jim, whose parents deaf but who was surrounded by spoken language from the television and radio in the hope that he would learn normal language. Jim showed no signs of learning language until a speech therapist took up his case at the age of three. Without the human interaction with the speech therapist there was no sign that Jim would have learned to speak. He needed the interaction before his language ability could develop. q If language development was innate, surely it would develop soon after we are able to control our voices, which is soon after one year of age. It does not explain why language takes a few years to develop. q Chomsky's theory also doesn't explain why there are such large variations in the rate children learn language.

Explain the importance of safeguarding children and young people Essay

We must safeguard children and young people as they are unable to protect themselves alone and are far more vulnerable to things such as abuse and neglect than adults are. It is our duty of care to protect children and young people from physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, verbal abuse and neglect. We must be able to identify early on the signs and symptoms of abuse or neglect before the child is to get in any serious danger. A child’s sudden change in behaviour could be a huge sign of abuse or neglect. For example if a child is to be subject to verbal abuse they may gradually become withdrawn and shy; they may even avoid interacting with other children in fear of being bullied for their differences. We are able to teach children what is right and wrong to a certain degree although this doesn’t necessarily mean they can protect themselves if they are to be in a dangerous situation; they may be frightened to tell someone in fear of being abused/neglected more o r may think the person they tell will not believe them. It is of great importance that we are to safeguard children as they are very vulnerable and as a society it is our duty of care to protect children and young people from any harm or abuse before it ends in serious/fatal injury. A child could be severely beaten up until the point of death or admitted into hospital for a long time due to having obtained serious injury. If we are to notice signs of abuse or neglect we should get into contact with other multi-agency workers such as police and social workers immediately.

Assignment for Distribution Channel

Assignment for the next class. ( P. S. You are required to split yourselves in group of 6to 8 members each, the details of which shall be collected in class. Students would be called out randomly from each group to present their analysis. In case of a dismal performance of any group member, the marks of the whole group will be at stake! ) 1. The marketing channel for Mary Kay Cosmetics is called a â€Å"direct selling† channel. The company uses a sales force of over 1,000,000 Independent Beauty Consultants around the world.These Consultants are not employees of Mary Kay Corporation; they buy cosmetics from the company at a wholesale price and sell at a retail price to end-users. They maintain personal relationships with their end-user consumers, and deliver product to them after it is ordered; it is a high-service purchasing relationship from the consumer’s point of view. Consultants thus act as both distributors and retailers. a. To what extent does an Independent Beau ty Consultant participate in the eight universal marketing flows? . How might these flows be shifted, either among the members now in the channel or to different agencies or institutions not presently included? What do you think would be the implications of such shifts? (think about how cosmetics are sold through department stores or through drugstore chains, for example) c. Within each of these distribution systems, specify what the consumer's role is from a flow-absorption perspective.Contrast this with the consumer’s role when buying cosmetics from a department store, or a drugstore chain. 2. For each of the three scenarios below, categorize the demand for bulk- breaking, spatial convenience, waiting/delivery time, and assortment/variety as â€Å"High,† â€Å"Medium,† or â€Å"Low. † In each case, explain your answers. a. A woman in an emerging-market country of Southeast Asia wishes to buy some cosmetics for herself.She has never done so before, and i s not entirely sure of on what occasions she will wear the cosmetics. She does not live near a big city. She is too poor to own a car, but has a bit of extra money for a small luxury. b. A manufacturer uses a particular industrial chemical in one of its large-scale production processes and needs to buy more of this chemical. The rest of the raw materials for its plant operations are delivered in a â€Å"just in time† fashion. c.Before you visit certain parts of the world, you are required to get a yellow fever vaccine. Many travelers let this slip until the last minute, forgetting that it is advisable (or avoiding an unpleasant shot as long as possible). But, they definitely realize they need the shot, and don't want to have to cancel their trip at the last minute because they didn't get it. They often find themselves making a long trip to a regional medical center because they didn't plan ahead.

Renee Descartes Meditations essays

Renee Descartes Meditations essays Descartes is a philosopher who is very disturb with the happenings of the world around him. Things are changing and he does not know if what he has been taught in the past is true. He has extreme doubt in everything that he has ever known. He feels that everything is false and he can not trust authorities. He decides that he needs to look for a new foundation (a reconstruction of knowledge). He believes that this new found knowledge should be certain and never doubted. Descartes starts to argue his points in his meditations. Descartes starts by doubting those qualities that we obtain through are senses. He first doubted those qualities of objects which involved only are senses and then he started to doubt ideas of mathematics. He says that some evil being must be deceiving him in anything that he has ever known. In the second meditation, Descartes starts again from almost where he left off in the first. He goes on to try to argue his existence. He starts by saying that he used to see himself as a rational animal, nut he wonders if he exists or if some kind of being is making him thing he exists. Descartes finally says that he can prove that he exist by thinking. He says I think therefore, I exist. This is his proof for his existence. Then Descartes gives an analogy through wax. First he describes the outward appearance of the wax. He puts the wax by a fire and it starts to melt. He begins to question if this is the same piece of wax that he had moments before. Descartes states that if perceives that the wax exists and in order to do this he must be perceiving so this proves that he exists. He uses this wax argument to establish that the mind is the only means of knowledge. His defense is the minds ability to clearly and distinctively perceive truths. ...

If You Had a Magic Wand Ice Breaker for Adults

If You Had a Magic Wand Ice Breaker for Adults If you had a magic wand and could change anything, what would you change? This is an icebreaker that opens minds, considers possibilities, and energizes your group when the discussion is dead. Its perfect for a classroom full of adults, a corporate meeting or seminar, or any group of adults gathered to learn. Ideal Size: Up to 20, divided into larger groups. Time Needed: 15 to 20 minutes, depending on the size of the group. Materials Needed A flip chart or whiteboard, and markers if you want to record the results, but this will depend on your topic and reason for playing. It isnt necessary. A fun wand of some kind to pass around would add to the fun. You can usually find one at a hobby shop or toy store. Look for Harry Potter or fairy princess merchandise. Instructions for Use During Introductions Give the magic wand to the first student with instructions to give his or her name, say a little something about why they chose your class, and what they would wish for regarding the topic if they had a magic wand. Example introduction: Hi, my name is Deb. I wanted to take this class because I really struggle with math. My calculator is my best friend. If I had a magic wand, Id have a calculator in my head so I could do math instantly. Instructions for Use When Discussion Dries Up When youre having trouble getting your class to participate in discussion, get the magic wand out and pass it around. Ask students to share what they would do with a magic wand. If you think your topic should be eliciting creative responses from your students, but isnt, keep the magic on the topic. If youre open to a little fun and craziness to liven things up, open the magic to anything at all. You might produce some laughter, and laughter heals almost everything. It definitely energizes. Debriefing Debrief after introductions, especially if you have a whiteboard or flip chart to refer to, by reviewing which magic wishes will be touched on in your agenda. If used as an energizer, debrief by asking the group to discuss how their magic wishes can be applied to your topic. Encourage wide open thinking. The sky is the limit. Sometimes two seemingly different ideas can be combined to create a great new thought.

Comparative commodity chain Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparative commodity chain - Research Paper Example This paper provides a detailed descriptive account of the production of tomatoes as well as the similarities and differences between their production methods. Tomato farming in California is practiced by large farm owners who have perfected the art for many decades. They are grown in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. The fields are planted from late January through early June for continuous harvest (Dhama 115). California, according to the United States Department of Agriculture, accounts for 90% of the United States of Americas production and 23% of the worlds production. Tomato farming requires a warm season because the crop is sensitive to frost thus planting during the winter season is impossible. The optimal soil temperature is 68Â °F (20Â °C) or above. Fruit development and quality are severely reduced when the temperatures fall below 68Â °F during the day and 50Â °F at night. The five most common varieties grown in California are Heinz 9557, AB 2, Halley 3155, Heinz 9780, and Hypeel 303. Furrow irrigation is the most common method used with drip irrigation gaining acceptance. Fertilizer application varies for different types of tomatoes farming. The typical rate of application is 125-250 pounds of nitrogen (N) per acre, 40-120 pounds of P2O5 and 0-200 pounds of k2O per acre. Pest and weed management are also put into consideration. The tomatoes are mechanically harvested and loaded into tandem bulk trailers and transported to processing plants. They are then graded at the inspection station located in production areas. The Processing Tomato Advisory Board (PTAB) administers this statewide program. Defects level, fruit color, soluble solid content and pH are evaluated. After all the inspection they are then certified and transported to various stores around the country. The stores in Tucson along with other stores around the country, receive their fresh produce through refrigerated trucks. The intended users of the product are the household, res taurants, hotels, hospitals and also schools. Most households use tomatoes in their daily lunch and evening meals. It has added nutritional value especially when it's cooked. There are various ways of producing tomatoes. They include conventional, organic and hothouse or greenhouse methods. The two common ones are organic production and conventional method of production. Organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded pesticide and fertilizers (Bradley 414). Organic fertilizer and soil amendment such as compost and manure are derived from waste outputs generated by other systems. The raw materials for these inputs are assumed to enter the farming systems without any environmental burden. While manure is not further processed before application, compost is produced from organic waste using water and energy as additional inputs. The advantages of using this method are that the tomatoes have high antioxidants, environmentally friendly and the fruits contain iron, potassium and vitamin A. Conventional production of tomatoes entails the use of manufactured synthetic compounds (chemicals) to enhance the growth of the plant. Its advantage is that the chemicals are readily available rather than having to construct a compost. The government through the United States Department of Agriculture has provided guidelines for use when applying/dressing the plants with the approved chemicals. If

An Assessment and Critique of Crisis Management in the Oil and Gas Dissertation

An Assessment and Critique of Crisis Management in the Oil and Gas Industry in Ensuring Company Continuity - Dissertation Example Note: Delete this text, but do not remove the section break that follows—if you can’t see it, click on the  ¶Show/Hide button on the formatting toolbar. Dedication The dedication, if desired, is a numbered page, but â€Å"Dedication† does not appear in the Table of Contents. Note that if the Abstract is two pages long, the page number of the Dedication must be changed to iv. Acknowledgments The â€Å"Acknowledgments† entry does appear in the Table of Contents. Table of Contents Acknowledgments 2 List of Tables 5 List of Figures 6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 7 Introduction to the Problem 7 Background of the Study 8 Statement of the Problem 9 Purpose of the Study 9 Rationale 10 Research Question 10 Significance of the Study 11 Definition of Terms 11 Assumptions and Limitations 13 Nature of the Study (or Theoretical/Conceptual Framework) 14 Organization of the Remainder of the Study 18 Overview 19 Crisis Management 19 Business continuity 25 The concept of crisi s distinguished from issue 26 The issue and crisis management relational model 27 Crisis Communication Theory 29 Crisis Leadership 41 Structural implications of crisis management on the organization 42 Low Probability, High Consequence Events 45 Assessment of the Crisis Prevention and Management System: The Exxon Valdez 46 Assessment of the Crisis Prevention and Management System: The BP Gulf Oil Spill 58 Synthesis of literature review 66 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 69 Research Design 69 Sample 70 Setting 72 Instrumentation/Measures 72 Data Collection 73 Data Analysis 74 Validity and Reliability 75 Ethical Considerations 76 List of Tables Table 1. Crisis Response Strategies by Postures 31 Table 2. SCCT Match for Crisis situation with Recommended Crisis Response 32 Table 3: Example of Risk Management Structure 43 List of Figures Figure 1. Issue and Crisis Management Relational Model 16 Figure 2. Disaster Management Cycle 29 Figure 3: Nine Steps of Crisis Response 35 Figure 4: Crisis Leade rship Continuum 42 Figures 5 & 6: Pictures from the Exxon oil spill site 52 Figure 7: Comparison of Exxon and CNN responses in the Exxon Valdez crisis 54 Figure 8: Picture from the BP Deep-water Horizon oil rig and spill site 61 Figure 9: Picture of fish washed upon in Galveston, Texas 65 Figure 10: Process Flowchart for Data Collection 74 (Note: Do not remove the section break that follows this paragraph.) CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem Ranked among the most disastrous man-made crises attributable to commercial operations are the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, and more recently, the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Damage from these incidents affected the lives and livelihoods of people distributed over a broad geographical area, and experts expect the repercussions to extend to subsequent generations because of their effect on the environment and wildlife. The oil industry, unfortunately, did not see the Exxon Valdez as sufficient precedent to have prompted the development of a standard crisis prevention and mitigation protocol to apply in the future. Taken together, oil and natural gas pipeline accidents have occurred over decades, often resulting in a significant number of fatalities. In 2011, a pipeline fire killed 100 people and seriously injured 120 in Nairobi. In 2010, a Pemex (Petroleos Mexicanos) pumping station in Central Mexico exploded, killing 27 and injuring 50 (Ellingwood, 2010). In 2006, a pipeline explosion in Nigeria killed up to 500 people (BBC News, 2006), but the